formulaic是什么意思mulaic在线翻译读音

ChapterIIntroductionDescribingandExplainingL2Acquisition

1.1Whatissecondlanguageacquisition?

Secondlanguagereferstoanylanguagethatislearnedsubsequenttothemothertongue.

1.2Whatarethegoalsofsecondlanguage?

ThegoalsofSLAaretodescribehowL2acquisitionproceedsandtoexplainthisprocessandwhy

somelearnersseemtobebetteratitthanothers.

1.3TwocasestudiesofL2learners

1.3.1Acasestudyofanadultlearner

1.3.2Acasestudyoftwochildlearners

Whatdothesecasestudiesshowus?

iseanumberofimportantmethodologicalissuesrelatingtohowL2acquisition

shouldbestudied

iseissuesrelatingtothedescriptionoflearnerlanguage

intoutso历代诗词名句鉴赏 meoftheproblemsresearchersexperienceintryingtoexplainL2

acquisition.

1.4Methodologicalissues

Whatisthatneedstobedescribed?

meanstosaythatalearnerhasacquiredafeatureofthetargetlanguage?

rlearnershaveacquiredaparticularfeature?

easurewhetheracquisitionhastakenplace?(Learner’soveruseoflinguisticforms.)

1.5Issuesinthedescriptionoflearnerlanguage

rsmakeer读书名言 小学生 摘抄 rorsofdifferentkinds.

rsacquiredalargenumberofformulaicchunks,whichwillinfluencetheirperformance

incommunicationandthefluencyoftheirunplannedspeech.

rlearnersacquirethelanguagesystematically?

1.6IssuesintheexplanationofL2acquisition

Itemlearning:formulaicchunks

Systemlearning:rules

Internal(mentalist)account:

Externalaccount:

Chapter2theNatureofLearnerLanguage

2.1Errorsanderroranalysis

2.1.1Identifyingerrors

2.1.1.1Comparethelearner’slanguagewiththenormalones.

2.1.1.2Distinguisherrorsandmistakes.

Definition:Errorsreflectgapsinalearner’sknowledge

Mistakesreflectoccasionallapsesinperformance.

Methods:heconsistencyoflearners’performance.

mtocorrecttheirownutterance.

Errorsandmistakes:

2.1.2Describingerrors

Methods:ypeoriented:

akeroriented:

Meaning:Classifyingerrorsinthesewayscanhelpustodiagnoselearners’learning

problemsatanyonestageoftheirdevelopmentand,alsotoplothowchangesinerrorpatterns

occurovertime.

2.1.3Explainingerrors

Errorsaresystematic,predictable,andsomeofthemareuniversal:(Learnershas

constructedsomekindof“r12345打一成语 ule”,albeitaruledifferentfromthatofthetargetlanguage)

Eg:omission:leaveoutthearticle“the”,leaveoutthe–sinpluralnouns

Overgeneralizationerror:eated---ate

TransfererrorsreflectlearnersattempttomakeuseoftheirL1knowledge.

2.1.4Errorevaluation

Typesoferrors:Globalerrors:violatethewholestructureofthesentence

Localerrors:affectonlyasingleconstituentinthesentence

2.2Developmentalpatterns

2.2.1TheearlystageofL2acquisition

Silentperiod:childrenmakenoattempttosayanythingtobeginwith.

Thisperiodmakesapreparationforsubsequentproduction.

Trialsanderrors:Mulaicchunks:theyprovidelearnerswiththemeansofperforminguseful

languagefunctionssuchasgreetingsandrequests.

Eg:“Howdoyoudo?”

“Mynameis___”

Propositionalsimplification:leavewordsout

Eg:“Menoblue”

2.2.2Theorderofacquisition

Accuracyorder:thereisadefiniteaccuracyorderandthatthisremainsmoreorlessthe

sameirrespectiveofthelearner’smothertongues,age,andwhetherornottheyhavereceive

formallanguageinstruction.

2.2.3Sequenceofacquisition

uisitionofaparticulargrammaticalstructure,therefore,mustbeseenasa

processinvolvingtransitionalconstructions.

itionfollowsaUshapedcourseofdevelopment.

cessinwhichlearnersreorganizetheirexistingknowledgeinorderto

accommodatenewknowledgeiscalledrestructuring.

2.2.4SomeImplications

a.L2issystematicanduniversal,reflectingwaysinwhichinternalcognitivemechanisms

controlacquisition,irrespectiveofthepersonalbackgroundoflearnersorthesettingsinwhich

theylearn.

nguisticfeaturesareinherentlyeasiertolearnthanothers.

2.3Variabilityinlearnerlanguage

ilityisalsosystematic,thatis,learnersusetheirlinguisticsourcesinpredictableways.

rsvaryintheiruseofthesecondlanguageaccordingto

linguisticcontext(Georgeplayingfootball/..allthetime)

situationalcontext.(kids/daughter)

&psycholinguisticcontext(prepared/unprepared)

-functionmapping

riation:

ization:

石化成因

任何现象的出现都不是偶然的,是可以追溯出它的原因的,二语习得过程中出现的中介语石化

现象也是有着根本性的原因的。Selinker从中介语理论的分析角度将石化现象形成的原因归

纳为五个过程:母语迁移、培训转移、二语学习策略、二语交际策略和目的语过度概括。Selinker

对石化的解释更多的是石化的主要表现,而没有找出石化的根本原因。后来,Ellis又对Selinker

和Lamendella的研究作了如下总结:(1)内因:年龄因素:即当学习者达到一定的关键期,他们的

大脑失去了可塑性,因而就无法掌握某些语言特征;缺乏与目的语社会文化融合的欲望:由于

各种不同的社会和心理因素,学习者对接受目的语文化标准不做出努力。(2)外因:交际压力:

持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。缺乏学习机

会:学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语言的机会。反馈性质：对学生第二语言使用的影响:肯

定的认知回馈(表示“我明白你的话”)导致石化的发生;否定的回馈(表示“我听不懂你的话”)

有助于消除石化。

应对策略

(一)增加二语的输入量

大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识,就会出现语言的稳定期。所以外

语教学中,当学习者已经达到某种精通程度后,应该增加他的二语输入量。二语的输入既要重

视数量又要重视质量。课堂教学材料要多样化,当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学

习动机的语境和篇章,如报刊文章、海报、广告等。学生应尽可能多利用课外听、说、读写

资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的机会。第二语言的输入应该包括音位知识、语法和词汇。

第二语言知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。对语言迁移的研究表明学习者对语言

的标志性特征比较敏感,所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。这

样,为了避免石化,语言学习者需要比较母语和目的语的文化,找出存在于两种语言之间结构

表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。

(二)融合听、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知

以认知理论对二语学习所做的分析为基础,针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主要原因，

并借鉴Brown的建议,针对中级学习者,我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教

学方法:第一种是以内容为中心的教学(content-basedteaching),这种教学以教授某专业的内

容为主,把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段,学生要想学好专业课,必须使自己的英语在听、说、

读、写等方面都达到一定的水平才能取得成功;第二种是以主题为中心的教学(theme-based

teaching),这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。例如英语精读课

就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学,目前在我国这种方法已被普遍

采用,但由于教师的准备不够,更重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要,所以没

能达到这种方法的最佳效果;第三种是以任务为中心的教学(task-basedteaching),这种方法更

注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现,在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真实的资料为主,如面试、

采访、公告、菜单等,要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务,这样

就突出了语言的功能性特点。对于高级英语学习者来说,提供真实的语境是当务之急,学习者

可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、英语电视节目以及用英语写影评、日记等方式来弥补缺少

真实语境的不足,另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联网最

大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。

Chapter3Interlanguage

3.1BehavioristLearningTheory

Languagelearningtheoryislikeanyotherkindoflearninginthatitinvolveshabitformation.

ButitisnotadequatetoadequatelyaccountforL2acquisition,sincelearnersfrequentlydonot

produceoutputthatsimplyreproduceinput.

Habit--stimulus--responseconnection

3.2Amentalisttheoryinlanguagelearning

❖Mainideasofthistheory

❖manbeingsarecapableoflearninglanguage.

❖anmindisequippedwithafacultyforlearninglanguage→Language

AcquisitionDevice(语言习得机制）.

❖cultyistheprimarydeterminantofLA.

❖sneeded,butonlyto\'trigger\'theoperationofthelanguageacquisition

device.

3.3Whatis“interlanguage”?

ItreferstothesystematicknowledgeofanL2thatisindependentofboththetargetand

thelearner\'sL1..Alearner\'sinterlanguageisauniquelinguisticsystem.

Thepremisesofinterlanguage

❖anguageisviewedasa\'mentalgrammar\'.（心理语法）

❖rmer\'sgrammarispermeable.（渗透性）

❖rner\'sgrammaristransitional.（迁移）

❖temslearnersconstructcontainvariablerules.多变

❖rsemployvariouslearningstrategiestodeveloptheirinterlanguage.（学习策略）

❖rner\'sgrammarislikelytofossilize.（石化）

Grammar

❖Thelearnerconstructsasystemofabstractlinguisticruleswhichunderlies

stemofrulesisviewedasa\'mental

grammar\'andisreferredtoasan\'interlanguage\'.

ble

❖Thegrammarisopentoinfluencefromtheoutside(htheinput).Itisalso

influencedfromtheinside.(on,overgeneralisation)computationalmodelofL2

acquisition

tional

❖Learnerschangetheirgrammarfromonetimetoanotherbyaddingrules,deletingrules,

andreconstructingthewholesystem.

❖Thisresultsinaninterlanguagecontinuum(连续体)

→paint,painting→paint,painting,painted

le

❖Someresearchershaveclaimedthatthesystemslearnersconstructcontainvariable

,thelearnersarelikelytohavecompetingrulesatanyonestageof

development.

❖Otherresearchersarguethatinterlanguagesystemsarehomogenerousandthat

variabilityreflectsthemistakeslearnersmakewhentheytrytousetheirknowledgeto

communicate.

❖ngstrategies

Lear

differentkindsoferrorslearnersproducereflectdifferentlearninfstrategies.

ization

Selinkersuggestedthatonlyabout5%oflearnersgoontodevelopthesamemental

grammarasnativespeakers.

3.4ComputationalmodelofL2acquisition

❖input→intake→L2knowledge→output↓

\'Blackbox\'ofthelearner\'smind=interlanguageconstructed

Otherwaystoelaboratethisbasicmodel

\'Socialcontext\'addedtoexplainhowthenatureoftheinputvariesfromonesettingtoanother

\'L2knowledge\'brokenupintotwoormorecomponentstoreflectthedifferentkindsof

knowledgelearnersconstructs.

itknowledgeaboutlanguage&implicitknowledgeoflanguage(P35)

Anarrowcanbedrawnfrom\'output\'to\'input\'.

Chapter4Socialaspectsofinterlanguage

4.1Interlanguageasastylisticcontinuum(风格连续体)

Stylisticcontinuum:

lstyle谨慎体

ularstyle通俗体

Problems:rsarenotalwaysmostaccurateintheircarefulstyleandleastcarefulintheir

vernacularstyle.

eofsocialfactorsremainsunclear.

Accommodationtheory:

HowsocialgroupsinfluencethecoursesofL2acquisition.

(Convergence,divergence)

4.2TheacquisitionmodelofL2acquisition(儒化模式)

Socialdistance,psychologicaldistance,pidginization

4.3SocialidentityandinvestmentinL2learning

Culturalcapitalisneededtoinvestinlanguagelearning.

Chapter5DiscourseAspectsofInterlanguage

5.1Acquiringdiscourserules

•Discourserulesrefertotherulesorregularitiesinthewaysinwhichnativespeakershold

conversations.

5.2TheroleofinputandinteractioninL2acquisition

nKrashen’sinputhypothesis

•L2acquisitiontakesplacewhenalearnerunderstandsinp欲饮琵琶马上催的上一句是什么 utthatcontainsgrammatical

formsthatareat‘i+1’(arealittlemoreadvancedthanthecurrentstateofthelearner’s

interlanguage).

•L2acquisitiondependsoncomprehensibleinput.（可理解的语言输入)

•Currentstate:inextadvancingstate:i+1

lLong’sinteractionhypothesis（互动假说）

•MichaelLong’sinteractionhypothesisalsoemphasizestheimportanceof

comprehensibleinputbutclaimsthatitismosteffectivewhenitismodifiedthroughthe

negotiationofmeaning（意义协商）

Hatch:Scaffolding

•EvelynHatchemphasizesthecollaborativeendeavorsofthelearnersandtheir

interlocutorsinconstructingdiscourseandsuggeststhatsyntacticstructurescangrow

outoftheprocessofbuildingthediscourse

lding（支架学习法）

Learnersusethediscoursetohelpthemproduceutterancesthattheywould

notbeabletoproduceontheirown.

Mark:Comehere.

Homer:Nocomehere.

5.3TheroleofoutputinL2acquisition

•Krashen:ywaylearnerscan

learnfromtheiroutputisbytreatingitasauto-input.

•MerrillSwain:ComprehensibleoutputalsoplaysapartinL2acquisition.

•1)Toserveaconsciousness-raisingfunctionbyhelpinglearnerstonoticegapsintheir

interlanguages.

•2)Totesthypotheses.

•3)Toidentifyproblemswithitanddiscussingwaysinwhichtheycanbeputright.

Chapter6Psycholinguisticaspectsofinterlanguage

6.1L1Transfer

Negativetransfer

Positivetransfer

Avoidance

Contrastiveanalysis

Speechacts

Interlangagedevelopmentcannotfollowarestructuringcontinuum

6.2TheroleofconsciousnessinL2acquisition

Schmidtarguesthatlearningcannottakeplacewithoutwhathecallsnoticing.

Implicitknowledge:theresultofanautomaticprocess

隐性知识：二语学习者能用但表达不出来的直觉知识

Explicitknowledge:theresultofaneffortfulprocess

显性知识：二语学习者能意识到、能说出来的语言规则知识

❖Itisperhapsself-evidentthatalll描写白露节气诗句诗词大全 anguageusers,includingL2learners,knowrulesthat

n

alwaysreflectonthisimplicitknowledge隐性知识,thusmakingitexplicit.

❖ItisalsoclearthatL2learnersmayhaveknowledgeabouttheL2(it

knowledge显性知识)butbeunabletousethisknowledgeinperformancewithout

consciousattention.

6.3Processingoperations

Operatingprinciples

➢ThestudyoftheL1acquisitionofmanydifferentlanguageshasledtothe

identificationof春日偶成二首 anumberofgeneralstrategieswhichchildrenusetoextractand

segmentlinguisticinformationfromthelanguagetheyhear.

➢Examples:avoidinterruption

rearrangementoflinguisticunits

avoidexceptions

Multidimensionalmodel

➢Thistheorysoughttoaccountforbothwhylearnersacquirethegrammarofalanguage

inadefiniteorderandalsowhysomelearnersonlydevelopverysimpleinterlanguage

grammars.

➢Itdistinguishesadevelopmentalandavariationalaxis.

Processingconstraints

6.4Communicat齐宣王使人吹竽文言文翻译 ionstrategies

➢Avoidproblematicitems

Mybrothermademetogivehimsomemoney.

➢Bo唐诗送别诗 rrowawordfromL1

➢Useanothertarget-languagewordthatisapproximateinmeaning

➢Paraphrasethemeaningofword

➢Constructanentirelynewword

Psycholinguisticmodelstoaccountfortheuseofcommunicationstrategies

Forexample:ClausFaerchandGabrieleKasperproposedamodelofspeech

production.

6.5Twotypesofcomputationalmodel

Serialprocessing:串行处理

Informationisprocessedinaseriesofsequentialstepsandresultsintherepresentation

ofwhathasbeenlearnedassomekindof‘rule’or‘strategy’

Paralleldistributedprocessing:并行处理

Learnerswiththeabilitytoperformanumberofmentaltasksatthesametime

Chapter7linguisticaspectsofinterlanguage

7.1Typologicaluniversals:relativeclause

当代类型学是从微观的视角研究语言各个层面的类型特征与共性，通过对大量语言的观察，

统计和对比，从中发现语言的普遍规律和形成这些规律的普遍性制约因素，并探究其形成动

因，以解释和预测语言可能具有的变化模式，从而揭示语言发展变化的本质。当代类型学理

论中的“标记性”，“蕴含共性”和“语法层级”对二语习得研究产生了巨大的影响，开启了

基于类型学理论的二语习得研究路径。

7.2Universalgrammar

Chomskyarguesthatlanguageisgovernedbyasetofhighlyabstractprinciplesthatprovide

parameterswhicharegivenparticularsettingsindifferentlanguage.

7.3Learnability

ChomskyhasclaimedthatchildrenlearningtheirL1mustrelyoninnateknowledgeof

languagebecauseotherwisethetaskfacingthemisanimpossibleone.

Hisargumentisthattheinputtowhichchildrenareexposedisinsufficienttoenablethem

sufficiencyisreferredtoas

thepovertyofthestimulus.

7.4Thecriticalperiodhypothesis(语言学习关键期假设)

Thecriticalperiodhypothesisstatesthatthereisaperiodduringwhichlanguageacquisitionis

easyandcomplete(-speakerabilityisachieved)andbeyondwhichitisdifficultand

typicallyincomplete.

7.5AccesstoUG

teaccess

ss

laccess

cess

7.6Markedness

Thedegreeofmarkednesscorrelateswiththeorderofacquisition.

（可标记等级与语言习得顺序是相关的）

一对语言特征包括两个对立体:有标记的和无标记的。

无标记成分：常见的，意义一般的，分布较广的。

有标记成分：反之。

7.7Cognitiveveruslinguisticexplanation

如何看待这些语言学解释呢？alternative？complementary？

Itdependsonwhetherlinguisticuniversalsandmarkednessareseenasexertingadirecteffecton

L2acquisitionorwhetherthelinguisticuniversalsandmarkednessareseenasexertingadirect

effectonL2acquisition.

Chapter8IndividualdifferencesinL2acquisition

(从心理学角度探究二语习得的差异)

Thedegreeofanxietytheyexperienceandtheirpreparednesstotakerisksinlearningandusing

L2.

8.1Languageaptitude

1.音位编码能力Phonemiccodingability

2.语法敏感度Grammaticallanguagelearningability

3.归纳能力Inductivelanguagelearningability

4.机械学习能力Rotelearningability

8.2Motivation

mentalmotivation工具型动机

ativemotivation融入型动机

ativemotivation结果型动机

sicmotivation本能动机

学习过程中，四种动机相辅相成

(1).Theyarecomplementaryratherthanasdistinctandoppositional

(2)Motivationisdynamicinnature.

8.3Learningstrategies

TheparticularapproachesortechniquesthatlearnersemploytotrytolearnanL2

Theycanbebehavioral:likerepeatingnewwordsaloudtohelpyourememberthem.

Theycanbemental:like,usingthelinguisticorsituationalcontexttoinferthemeaning

ofanewword.

1.认知策略Cognitivestrategies：个人学习时在心理上运用他以前学得的知识经验，

凭经验去辨别，选择，思维，分析，归纳，从而获得新知识的一个方法

Cognitivestrategiesarethosethatareinvolvedintheanalysis,synthesis,or

transformationoflearningmaterials.

eg：Recombinationwhichinvolvesconstructingameaningfulsentencebyrecombining

knownelementsoftheL2inanewway.

2.元认知策略Meta-cognitivestrategiesarethoseinvolvedinplanning,monitoringand

evaluatinglearning.

eg:selectiveattention（选择注意）wherethelearnermakesaconsciousdecisionto

attendtoparticularaspectsoftheinput

元认知策略：主体将自己的认知过程最为认知和意识对象，并对认知活动的全过程

进行不断地，自觉地监控和调节的执行策略。

3.交际策略/情感策略

Socialstrategies/affectivestrategiesconcernthewaysinwhichlearnerschooseto

interactwithotherspeakers.

eg:questioningforclarification(forrepetition,aparaphrase,oranexample.

交际策略/情感策略：与别人合作交往的策略

WhichstrategiesareimportantforL2acquisition?

Successfullearnerspayattentiontobothformandmeaning.

Goodlanguagelearnersarealsoveryactive(estrategiesfortakingcharge

oftheirownlearning)

Theyalsoshowawarenessofthreelearningprocessandtheirownpersonallearning

stylesand,areflexibleandappropriateintheiruseoflearningstrategies.

Otherstudies:

Successfullearnersusemorestrategiesthanunsuccessfullearners.

DifferentstrategiesarerelatedtodifferentaspectsofL2learning.

Successfullearnersmayalsocallondifferentstrategiesatdifferentstagesoftheir

development.

Strategiesinvolveformalpractice形式操作策略contributetothedevelopmentof

linguisticcompetence,likerehearsinganewword.

Strategiesinvolvingfunctionalpractice功能操作策略aidthedevelopmentof

communicativeskills,likeseekingo赞美诗歌大全下载 utnativespeakerstotalkto.

Chapter9InstructionandL2Acquisition

9.1Formfocusedinstruction

Doesitwork?

Howsignificanttheeffectsofinstructionsactuallyare?

Teachabiltyhypothesis可教性假说

1.取决于教学的本质。

2.取决于目标结构的本质。

3.只有在学习者拥有持续的听，用，目标语的时候才有用。

Whatkindofform-focusedinstructionworksbest?

ctionbetweenProductionbasedinstructionandInputbasedinstruction

ousness-raising

9.2Learning–instructionmatching因材施教

9.3Strategytraining策略训练

Chapter10MultipleperspectiveinSLA

snosinglemetaphorthatcanencompassallthemetaphors

thatSLAhasdrawnontoexplainhowlearnersacquireanL2.

earguethatSLAneedstoengageinthecarefuleliminationof

theoriestodemonstrateitsmaturityasadiscipline.

OthersarguethatL2isahighlycomplexphenomenonandthat,

therefore,multipletheoriesarebothinevitableanddesirable.

3.1Someresearchershavebeenprimarilyconcernedwithlanguage

pedagogyandhaveseenSLAascontributingtomoreeffectivelanguage

teaching.

3.2OthershaveseenmoreconcernedwithlinguisticsandhaveseenSLA

asawayoftestinghypothesisaboutthenatureoflanguage.

3.3Stillothershavebeenconcernedwiththesociologyofmultilingual

communitiesandareinterestedinSLAbecauseitservestoillustratehow

socialcontextaffectsandisaffectedbylanguage.